Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA): An Overview of Its Biological Activities, Properties, Polymerization

Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA): An Overview of Its Biological Activities, Properties, Polymerization, Modifications, and Dental and Industrial Applications
Review
Published: 22 September 2025
(2025)
Cite this article
View saved research
Regenerative Engineering and Translational Medicine
Aims and scope
Submit manuscript
Abstract
The synthetic polymer known as polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) monomer is derived from methyl methacrylate. It is a thermoplastic that is translucent and used in engineering applications. In addition to its trade names and brands, the synthetic polymer is also known as acrylic and acrylic glass. PMMA is a popular biomaterial due to its special characteristics, which include low density, affordability, and attractiveness for a variety of dental applications, adaptive mechanical and physical qualities, and ease of manipulation. More recently, a number of research studies have reported that mechanical reinforcement of PMMA using various types of fibers, nanoparticles, and nanotubes can further enhance the characteristics. For these reasons, it is commonly used in sheets as a lightweight or shatterproof alternative to glass. It can also be used as a casting resin and in coatings and inks, among many other applications. This research work examines the most recent discoveries of the PMMA polymer, including its biological activities, characteristics, polymerization, alterations, and uses.
Lay Summary
With an emphasis on prosthodontics (the design, manufacture, and fitting of artificial replacements for teeth and other parts of the mouth), the current paper offers a comprehensive examination of various attributes and traits of PMMA biomaterials, including recent modifications and enhancements of PMMA’s mechanical and physical properties.
Graphical Abstract
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution
to check access.
Access this article
Log in via an institution
Subscribe and save
Springer+
from €37.37 /Month
Starting from 10 chapters or articles per month
Access and download chapters and articles from more than 300k books and 2,500 journals
Cancel anytime
View plans
Buy Now
Price includes VAT (China (P.R.))
Instant access to the full article PDF.
Institutional subscriptions
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Similar content being viewed by others
Synthesis and Characterization of Post-Metallocene Complex and Optimization of Reaction Conditions by RSM for Polymerization of MMA
Article
27 August 2026
Development of bioactive PMMA resins: impact of Zn-doped TiO2 nanoparticles on antimicrobial efficacy and mechanical behavior
Article
08 May 2026
Waste Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA): Recycling and High-Yield Monomer Recovery
Chapter
© 2018
Explore related subjects
Discover the latest articles, books and news in related subjects, suggested using machine learning.
Biomethanol
Composite Resin
Dental Biomaterials
Polymerization
Dental Materials
Polymers
Self-Healing Polymer Materials and Their Properties
Data Availability
Not applicable
Code Availability
Not applicable
References
Ahamad Said MN, Hasbullah NA, Rosdi MRH, Musa MS, Rusli A, Ariffin A, et al. Polymerization and applications of poly(methyl methacrylate)–graphene oxide nanocomposites: a review. ACS Omega. 2022;7:47490–503. Available from: https://pubs.acs.org/doi/https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c04483.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
CAS
Google Scholar
Deka N, Bera A, Roy D, De P. Methyl methacrylate-based copolymers: recent developments in the areas of transparent and stretchable active matrices. ACS Omega. 2022;7:36929–44. Available from: https://pubs.acs.org/doi/https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c04564.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
CAS
Google Scholar
Zoppe JO, Ataman NC, Mocny P, Wang J, Moraes J, Klok H-A. Surface-initiated controlled radical polymerization: state-of-the-art, opportunities, and challenges in surface and interface engineering with polymer brushes. Chem Rev. 2017;117:1105–318. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00314.
Article
PubMed
CAS
Google Scholar
Zhang P, Xu Q, Mao W, Lv J, Tang H, Tang H. Synthesis of ultrahigh molecular weight poly(methyl methacrylate) via the polymerization of mma initiated by the combination of palladium carboxylates with thiols. Polymers (Basel). 2023;15:2501. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/15/11/2501.
Article
PubMed
CAS
Google Scholar
Galgano A, Di Blasi C. Effects of the PMMA molecular weight on the thermal and thermo-oxidative decomposition as the first chemical stage of flaming ignition. Processes. 2024;12:219. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/1/219.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Ramanathan S, Lin Y-C, Thirumurugan S, Hu C-C, Duann Y-F, Chung R-J. Poly(methyl methacrylate) in orthopedics: strategies, challenges, and prospects in bone tissue engineering. Polymers (Basel). 2024;16:367. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/16/3/367.
Article
PubMed
CAS
Google Scholar
Wang Z, Cui F, Sui Y, Yan J. Radical chemistry in polymer science: an overview and recent advances. Beilstein J Org Chem. 2023;19:1580–603. Available from: https://www.beilstein-journals.org/bjoc/articles/19/116.
Díez-Pascual AM. PMMA-Based nanocomposites for odontology applications: a state-of-the-art. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23:10288. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/18/10288.
Corsaro C, Neri G, Santoro A, Fazio E. Acrylate and methacrylate polymers’ applications: second life with inexpensive and sustainable recycling approaches. Materials (Basel). 2021;15:282. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/1/282.
Lovell PA, Schork FJ. Fundamentals of emulsion polymerization. Biomacromolecules. 2020;21:4396–441.https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.biomac.0c00769.
Campanale C, Massarelli C, Savino I, Locaputo V, Uricchio VF. A detailed review study on potential effects of microplastics and additives of concern on human health. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17:1212. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/17/4/1212
Le Bars P, Bandiaky ON, Le Guéhennec L, Clouet R, Kouadio AA. Different polymers for the base of removable dentures? Part I: a narrative review of mechanical and physical properties. Polymers (Basel). 2023;15:3495. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/15/17/3495.
Rodrigues JL. Heterologous production of acrylic acid: current challenges and perspectives. SynBio. 2022;1:3–32. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2674-0583/1/1/2.
Zafar MS. Prosthodontic applications of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA): an update. Polymers (Basel). 2020;12:2299. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/12/10/2299.
Bistolfi A, Ferracini R, Albanese C, Vernè E, Miola M. PMMA-based bone cements and the problem of joint arthroplasty infections: status and new perspectives. Materials. 2019;12(23):4002.. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/12/23/4002
Thimukonda Jegadeesan J, Baldia M, Basu B. Next-generation personalized cranioplasty treatment. Acta Biomater. 2022;154:63–82. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1742706122006869.
Ozkir SE, Yilmaz B, Unal SM, Culhaoglu A, Kurkcuoglu I. Effect of heat polymerization conditions and microwave on the flexural strength of polymethyl methacrylate. Eur J Dent. 2018;12:116–9. Available from: http://www.thieme-connect.dehttps://doi.org/10.4103/ejd.ejd_199_17.
Alqutaibi AY, Baik A, Almuzaini SA, Farghal AE, Alnazzawi AA, Borzangy S, et al. Polymeric denture base materials: a review. Polymers (Basel). 2023;15:3258. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/15/15/3258.
Cassar-Gheiti AJ, McColgan R, Kelly M, Cassar-Gheiti TM, Kenny P, Murphy CG. Current concepts and outcomes in cemented femoral stem design and cementation techniques: the argument for a new classification system. EFORT Open Rev. 2020;5:241–52. Available from: https://eor.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/eor/5/4/2058-5241.5.190034.xml.
Marin E. History of dental biomaterials: biocompatibility, durability and still open challenges. Herit Sci. 2023;11:207. Available from: https://heritagesciencejournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40494-023-01046-8.
Tang E, Wang D, Li L, Peng H, Han Y, Chen C, et al. Polarization response characteristics of 6061Al and PMMA sheets under impact load. Int J Impact Eng. 2023;178:104632. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0734743X23001434.
Al-Odayni A-B, Saeed WS, Ahmed AYBH, Alrahlah A, Al-Kahtani A, Aouak T. New monomer based on eugenol methacrylate, synthesis, polymerization and copolymerization with methyl methacrylate–characterization and thermal properties. Polymers (Basel). 2020;12:160. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/12/1/160.
Akhayere E, Essien EA, Kavaz D. Effective and reusable nano-silica synthesized from barley and wheat grass for the removal of nickel from agricultural wastewater. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2019;26:25802–13. Available from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11356-019-05759-x.
Maafa IM. Inhibition of free radical polymerization: a review. Polymers (Basel). 2023;15:488. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/15/3/488.
Hammed WA, Rahman MS, Mahmud HNME, Yahya R, Sulaiman K. Processable dodecylbenzene sulfonic acid (DBSA) doped poly(n-vinyl carbazole)-poly(pyrrole) for optoelectronic applications. Des Monomers Polym. 2017;20:368–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/15685551.2016.1271086.
Article
PubMed
CAS
Google Scholar
Funk GA, Menuey EM, Cole KA, Schuman TP, Kilway KV, McIff TE. Radical scavenging of poly(methyl methacrylate) bone cement by rifampin and clinically relevant properties of the rifampin-loaded cement. Bone Joint Res. 2019;8:81–9. Available from: https://online.boneandjoint.org.uk/doi/10.1302/2046-3758.82.BJR-2018-0170.R2.
Vallés C, Papageorgiou DG, Lin F, Li Z, Spencer BF, Young RJ, et al. PMMA-grafted graphene nanoplatelets to reinforce the mechanical and thermal properties of PMMA composites. Carbon N Y. 2020;157:750–60. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0008622319310930.
Tsagkalias I, Vlachou A, Verros G, Achilias D. Effect of graphene oxide or functionalized graphene oxide on the copolymerization kinetics of styrene/n-butyl methacrylate. Polymers (Basel). 2019;11:999. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/11/6/999.
Oehl G, Naga N, Ziegmann G. Facile synthesis of poly(methyl methacrylate) silica nanocomposite monolith by in situ free radical polymerization of methyl methacrylate in the presence of functionalized silica nanoparticles. ACS Omega. 2024;9:16279–87.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
CAS
Google Scholar
Al-Jumaily AM, Grau-Bartual S, Weerasinghe NT. Biocompatible polymer for self-humidification. Polymers (Basel). 2023;15:4101. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/15/20/4101.
Vashahi F, Martinez MR, Dashtimoghadam E, Fahimipour F, Keith AN, Bersenev EA, et al. Injectable bottlebrush hydrogels with tissue-mimetic mechanical properties. Sci Adv. 2022;8. Available from: https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abm2469.
Sandhya M, Ramasamy D, Sudhakar K, Kadirgama K, Harun WSW. Ultrasonication an intensifying tool for preparation of stable nanofluids and study the time influence on distinct properties of graphene nanofluids – a systematic overview. Ultrason Sonochem. 2021;73:105479. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1350417721000201.
Kobayashi H, Suzuki T, Chaiyasat A, Okubo M. Incorporation behavior of nonionic emulsifiers inside particles and secondary particle nucleation during emulsion polymerization of styrene. Langmuir. 2020;36:9747–55. Available from: https://pubs.acs.org/doi/https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c04483.
Zhou M, Huang J, Zhao Y, Deng X, Ni R, Zhao Y, et al. Synthesis and physicochemical properties of CO2-switchable gemini surfactants. J Mol Liq. 2022;352:118642. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0167732222001799.
Albernaz V, Bach M, Weber A, Southan A, Tovar G. Active ester containing surfmer for one-stage polymer nanoparticle surface functionalization in mini-emulsion polymerization. Polymers (Basel). 2018;10:408. Available from: http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/10/4/408.
Nagtode VS, Cardoza C, Yasin HKA, Mali SN, Tambe SM, Roy P, et al. Green surfactants (biosurfactants): a petroleum-free substitute for sustainability─comparison, applications, market, and future prospects. ACS Omega. 2023;8:11674–99. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c00591.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
CAS
Google Scholar
Kurpanik R, Lechowska-Liszka A, Mastalska-Popławska J, Nocuń M, Rapacz-Kmita A, Ścisłowska-Czarnecka A, et al. Effect of ionic and non-ionic surfactant on bovine serum albumin encapsulation and biological properties of emulsion-electrospun fibers. Molecules. 2022;27:3232. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/27/10/3232.
Park S, Mun S, Kim Y-R. Influences of added surfactants on the water solubility and antibacterial activity of rosemary extract. Food Sci Biotechnol. 2020;29:1373–80. Available from: https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10068-020-00792-w.
Min TH, Lee CJ, Choi HJ. Pickering emulsion polymerized core-shell structured poly(methyl methacrylate)/graphene oxide particles and their electrorheological characteristics. Polym Test. 2018;66:195–202. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0142941817312989.
Cohen S, Zelikman E, Suckeveriene RY. Ultrasonically induced polymerization and polymer grafting in the presence of carbonaceous nanoparticles. Processes. 2020;8:1680. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/8/12/1680.
Hassan NA, Darwesh OM, Smuda SS, Altemimi AB, Hu A, Cacciola F, et al. Recent trends in the preparation of nano-starch particles. Molecules. 2022;27:5497. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/27/17/5497.
Alateah AH. Graphene concrete: Recent advances in production methods, performance properties, environmental impact and economic viability. Case Stud Constr Mater. 2023;19:e02653. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2214509523008331.
Roy S, Nagabooshanam S, Chauhan N, Mathur A, Wadhwa S, Jain U, et al. Recent advances in bioelectroanalytical sensors based on molecularly imprinted polymeric surfaces. Multifaceted bio-sensing Technol. Elsevier; 2023. p. 111–34. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780323908078000099.
Edo GI, Ndudi W, Ali ABM, Yousif E, Zainulabdeen K, Onyibe PN, et al. An updated review on the modifications, recycling, polymerization, and applications of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). J Mater Sci. 2024;59(44):20496–539. Available from: https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10853-024-10402-3.
Calhoun A. Polypropylene. Multilayer Flex Packag. Elsevier; 2016. p. 35–45. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B978032337100100003X.
Sun J, Wang H, Tian S, Fan X, Shi Q, Liu Y, et al. Important mesoscale phenomena in gas phase fluidized bed ethylene polymerization. Particuology. 2020;48:116–43. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1674200119300562.
Pladis P, Kiparissides C. Polymerization Reactors. Ref Modul Chem Mol Sci Chem Eng. Elsevier; 2014. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780124095472109084.
Pladis P, Kiparissides C. Polymerization Reactors. Ref Modul Chem Mol Sci Chem Eng: Elsevier; 2014.
Hussein AK, Yousif E, Rasheed MK, Edo GI, Bufaroosha M, Umar H. Synthesis, modification, and applications of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC). Polym-Plast Technol Eng. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1080/25740881.2024.2421436.
Article
Google Scholar
Campanati M, Fornasari G, Vaccari A. Fundamentals in the preparation of heterogeneous catalysts. Catal Today. 2003;77:299–314. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0920586102003759.
Davoodi S, Al-Shargabi M, Wood DA, Rukavishnikov VS, Minaev KM. Synthetic polymers: a review of applications in drilling fluids. Pet Sci. 2024;21:475–518. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1995822623002121.
Christian P, Giles MR, Griffiths RMT, Irvine DJ, Major RC, Howdle SM. Free radical polymerization of methyl methacrylate in supercritical carbon dioxide using a pseudo-graft stabilizer: effect of monomer, initiator, and stabilizer concentrations. Macromolecules. 2000;33:9222–7. Available from: https://pubs.acs.org/doi/https://doi.org/10.1021/ma0008948.
Dall’Anese A, Kulyabin PS, Uborsky D V., Vittoria A, Ehm C, Cipullo R, et al. Octahedral zirconium salan catalysts for olefin polymerization: substituent and solvent effects on structure and dynamics. Inorg Chem. 2023;62:16021–37. Available from: https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.inorgchem.3c02153.
Gao L, Ren H, Hou Y, Ye L, Meng H, Liu B, et al. Synthesis of high-molecular-weight polypropylene elastomer by propylene polymerization using α-diimine nickel catalysts. Polymers (Basel). 2024;16:2376. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/16/16/2376.
Zhao Y, Zhang Z, Luo Y. DFT modeling of coordination polymerization of polar olefin monomers by molecular metal complexes. Inorganics. 2024;12:233. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2304-6740/12/9/233.
Yuan M, Xu L, Cui X, Lv J, Zhang P, Tang H. Facile synthesis of ultrahigh molecular weight poly(methyl methacrylate) by organic halides in the presence of palladium nanoparticles. Polymers (Basel). 2020;12:2747. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/12/11/2747.
Gong M, Zhang D, Zhang J, Li J, Chen X. Optimization of initiator contents in room temperature polymerization of methyl methacrylate. Polym Polym Compos. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/09673911221143201.
Article
Google Scholar
Orowitz TE, Ana Sombo PPAA, Rahayu D, Hasanah AN. Microsphere polymers in molecular imprinting: current and future perspectives. Molecules. 2020;25:3256. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/25/14/3256.
Kitayama T, Kitaura T. Anionic polymerization of methyl methacrylate with lithium n-benzyltrimethylsilylamide. Polym J. 2003;35:539–43. Available from: https://www.nature.com/finder/https://doi.org/10.1295/polymj.35.539.
Virdi JK, Dusunge A, Handa S. Aqueous micelles as solvent, ligand, and reaction promoter in catalysis. JACS Au. 2024;4:301–17. Available from: https://pubs.acs.org/https://doi.org/10.1021/jacsau.3c00605
Al Khulaifi RS, AlShehri MM, Al-Owais AA, Algarni TS, Saeed WS, Badjah-Hadj-Ahmed AY, et al. New method based on the direct analysis in real time coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry to investigate the thermal depolymerization of poly(methyl methacrylate). Polymers (Basel). 2023;15:599. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/15/3/599.
Roy S, Nagabooshanam S, Chauhan N, Mathur A, Wadhwa S, Jain U, et al. Recent advances in bioelectroanalytical sensors based on molecularly imprinted polymeric surfaces. Multifaceted Bio-sensing Technol. Elsevier; 2023. p. 111–34.
Dyson PJ, Jessop PG. Solvent effects in catalysis: rational improvements of catalysts via manipulation of solvent interactions. Catal Sci Technol. 2016;6:3302–16. Available from: https://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=C5CY02197A
Yang G, Meng L, Che A (Yu), Huang Y, Li R. High performance gas-phase ethylene polymerization metallocene catalyst investigation in a pilot-plant fluidized bed reactor (1) experimental analysis. Powder Technol. 2018;327:310–9. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S003259101731032X
Umoren SA, Solomon MM, Saji VS. Basic polymer concepts I. Polym Mater Corros Inhib. Elsevier; 2022. p. 3–48. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780128238547000072.
Atkinson I, Seciu-Grama AM, Mocioiu OC, Mocioiu AM, Predoana L, Voicescu M, et al. Preparation and biocompatibility of poly methyl methacrylate (PMMA)-mesoporous bioactive glass (MBG) composite scaffolds. Gels. 2021;7(4):180.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
CAS
Google Scholar
Wang Y, Chen Y, Guo B, Zhang S, Tong Y, Niu D. Study on the strength and hydration behavior of sulfate-resistant cement in high geothermal environment. Materials (Basel). 2022;15:2790. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/8/2790.
Wei Y, Baskaran N, Wang H-Y, Su Y-C, Nabilla SC, Chung R-J. Study of polymethylmethacrylate/tricalcium silicate composite cement for orthopedic application. Biomed J. 2023;46:100540. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2319417022000907.
Xue N, Ding X, Huang R, Jiang R, Huang H, Pan X, et al. Bone tissue engineering in the treatment of bone defects. Pharmaceuticals. 2022;15:879. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/15/7/879.
Al-Harbi N, Mohammed H, Al-Hadeethi Y, Bakry AS, Umar A, Hussein MA, et al. Silica-Based bioactive glasses and their applications in hard tissue regeneration: a review. Pharmaceuticals. 2021;14:75. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/14/2/75.
Kaimonov MR, Safronova TV. Materials in the Na2O–CaO–SiO2–P2O5 system for medical applications. Materials (Basel). 2023;16:5981. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/16/17/5981.
Kokubo T, Ito S, Huang ZT, Hayashi T, Sakka S, Kitsugi T, et al. Ca, P-rich layer formed on high-strength bioactive glass-ceramic A-W. J Biomed Mater Res. 1990;24:331–43. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jbm.820240306.
Deshmukh K, Kovářík T, Křenek T, Docheva D, Stich T, Pola J. Recent advances and future perspectives of sol–gel derived porous bioactive glasses: a review. RSC Adv. 2020;10:33782–835. Available from: https://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=D0RA04287K.
Robo C, Wenner D, Ubhayasekera SJKA, Hilborn J, Öhman-Mägi C, Persson C. Functional properties of low-modulus PMMA bone cements containing linoleic acid. J Funct Biomater. 2021;12:5. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2079-4983/12/1/5.
Fang C-H, Lin Y-W, Sun J-S, Lin F-H. The chitosan/tri-calcium phosphate bio-composite bone cement promotes better osteo-integration: an in vitro and in vivo study. J Orthop Surg Res. 2019;14:162. Available from: https://josr-online.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13018-019-1201-2
Lenguerrand E, Whitehouse MR, Beswick AD, Kunutsor SK, Foguet P, Porter M, et al. Risk factors associated with revision for prosthetic joint infection following knee replacement: an observational cohort study from England and Wales. Lancet Infect Dis. 2019;19:589–600. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1473309918307552.
Mancuso G, Midiri A, Gerace E, Biondo C. Bacterial antibiotic resistance: the most critical pathogens. Pathogens. 2021;10:1310. Available from:https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/10/10/1310.
Muteeb G. Nanotechnology—A light of hope for combating antibiotic resistance. Microorganisms. 2023;11:1489. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/11/6/1489.
Sebastian S, Liu Y, Christensen R, Raina DB, Tägil M, Lidgren L. Antibiotic containing bone cement in prevention of hip and knee prosthetic joint infections: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Orthop Transl. 2020;23:53–60. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2214031X20300504.
Sebastian S, Tandberg F, Liu Y, Raina DB, Tägil M, Collin M, et al. Extended local release and improved bacterial eradication by adding rifampicin to a biphasic ceramic carrier containing gentamicin or vancomycin. Bone Joint Res. 2022;11:787–802. Available from: https://online.boneandjoint.org.uk/doi/10.1302/2046-3758.1111.BJR-2022-0101.R1.
Baig N, Kammakakam I, Falath W. Nanomaterials: a review of synthesis methods, properties, recent progress, and challenges. Mater Adv. 2021;2:1821–71. Available from: https://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=D0MA00807A.
Yusuf A, Almotairy ARZ, Henidi H, Alshehri OY, Aldughaim MS. Nanoparticles as drug delivery systems: a review of the implication of nanoparticles’ physicochemical properties on responses in biological systems. Polymers (Basel). 2023;15:1596. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/15/7/1596.
Kaiser KG, Delattre V, Frost VJ, Buck GW, Phu JV, Fernandez TG, et al. Nanosilver: an old antibacterial agent with great promise in the fight against antibiotic resistance. Antibiotics. 2023;12:1264. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2079-6382/12/8/1264.
Paz E, Ballesteros Y, Abenojar J, Dunne N, del Real JC. Advanced G-MPS-PMMA bone cements: influence of graphene silanisation on fatigue performance, thermal properties and biocompatibility. Nanomaterials. 2021;11:139. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2079-4991/11/1/139.
Paz E, Ballesteros Y, Abenojar J, del Real JC, Dunne NJ. Graphene oxide and graphene reinforced PMMA bone cements: evaluation of thermal properties and biocompatibility. Materials (Basel). 2019;12:3146. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/12/19/3146.
Wang H, Maeda T, Miyazaki T. Preparation of bioactive and antibacterial PMMA-based bone cement by modification with quaternary ammonium and alkoxysilane. J Biomater Appl. 2021;36:311–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/08853282211004413.
Article
PubMed
CAS
Google Scholar
Akhayere E, Kavaz D. Nano-silica and nano-zeolite synthesized from barley grass straw for effective removal of gasoline from aqueous solution: a comparative study. Chem Eng Commun. 2021;208:1419–35. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00986445.2020.1786373.
Aigbe R, Akhayere E, Kavaz D, Akiode OK. Characteristics of zinc oxide and carbonized sawdust nanocomposite in the removal of cadmium(II) ions from water. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2021;232:459.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Li S, Li X, Bai X, Wang Y, Han P, Li H. A meta-analysis comparing the efficacy of mineralized collagen-polymethylmethacrylate and polymethylmethacrylate bone cements in the treatment of vertebral compression fractures. Dua R, editor. PLoS One. 2024;19:e0299325. Available from: https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299325
Phakatkar AH, Shirdar MR, Qi M, Taheri MM, Narayanan S, Foroozan T, et al. Novel PMMA bone cement nanocomposites containing magnesium phosphate nanosheets and hydroxyapatite nanofibers. Mater Sci Eng C. 2020;109:110497. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0928493118313456.
Shirdar MR, Taheri MM, Qi M-L, Gohari S, Farajpour N, Narayanan S, et al. Optimization of the mechanical properties and the cytocompatibility for the PMMA nanocomposites reinforced with the hydroxyapatite nanofibers and the magnesium phosphate nanosheets. Materials (Basel). 2021;14:5893. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/14/19/5893.
Elbakyan L, Zaporotskova I. Composite nanomaterials based on polymethylmethacrylate doped with carbon nanotubes and nanoparticles: a review. Polymers (Basel). 2024;16:1242. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/16/9/1242.
An J, Song Y, Zhao J, Xu B. Antifungal efficiency and cytocompatibility of polymethyl methacrylate modified with zinc dimethacrylate. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2023;13. Available from: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcimb.2023.1138588/full.
Chen X-G, Zhang Y-F. Thermal, mechanical and electrical properties of Ag nanoparticle–polymethyl methacrylate composites under different service temperatures. J Compos Sci. 2024;8:279. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2504-477X/8/7/279.
Cierech M, Szerszeń M, Wojnarowicz J, Łojkowski W, Kostrzewa-Janicka J, Mierzwińska-Nastalska E. Preparation and characterisation of poly(methyl metacrylate)-titanium dioxide nanocomposites for denture bases. Polymers (Basel). 2020;12:2655. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/12/11/2655.
Bhattacharjee R, Negi A, Bhattacharya B, Dey T, Mitra P, Preetam S, et al. Nanotheranostics to target antibiotic-resistant bacteria: strategies and applications. OpenNano. 2023;11:100138. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2352952023000178.
Ali A, Rahimian Koloor SS, Alshehri AH, Arockiarajan A. Carbon nanotube characteristics and enhancement effects on the mechanical features of polymer-based materials and structures – a review. J Mater Res Technol. 2023;24:6495–521. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2238785423007652.
Miri Z, Haugen HJ, Loca D, Rossi F, Perale G, Moghanian A, et al. Review on the strategies to improve the mechanical strength of highly porous bone bioceramic scaffolds. J Eur Ceram Soc. 2024;44:23–42. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S095522192300688X.
Arun Kumar P, Iniyan K, Balasubramaniam R, Viswanathan M, Hines PaJ, Monnica V. The effect of surface treatments on the shear bond strength of acrylic resin denture base with different repair acrylic resin: an in vitro study. J Pharm Bioallied Sci. 2019;11:380. Available from: https://journals.lww.com/10.4103/JPBS.JPBS_40_19.
Deepika K, Goel S, Gupta R, Jain RA. Application of polyvinyl chloride sheet as delayed surgical obturator in maxillectomy defects secondary to mucormycosis- a case series. J Oral Biol Craniofacial Res. 2023;13:207–9. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2212426823000040.
Gad M, Fouda S, Al-Harbi F, Näpänkangas R, Raustia A. PMMA denture base material enhancement: a review of fiber, filler, and nanofiller addition. Int J Nanomedicine. 2017;12:3801–12. Available from: https://www.dovepress.com/pmma-denture-base-material-enhancement-a-review-of-fiber-filler-and-na-peer-reviewed-article-IJN.
Lopes-Rocha L, Gonçalves VMF, Cunha SC, Fernandes JO, Pinho T, Tiritan ME. Evaluation of BPA and Bis-GMA release from recent dental composite materials by LC-MS/MS. Separations. 2023;10:455. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2297-8739/10/8/455.
Ferracane JL. A historical perspective on dental composite restorative materials. J Funct Biomater. 2024;15:173. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2079-4983/15/7/173.
Lillo F, Martínez A, Bustamante L, Meléndrez MF, Muñoz C, Marzialetti T. Bisphenol A released and ultrastructural changes in dental composite resins. Int J Interdiscip Dent. 2024;17:19–23. Available from: http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttextandpid=S2452-55882024000100019andlng=enandnrm=isoandtlng=en.
Della Rocca